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Setelah berganti manajemen, maka berganti pulalah tujuan yang ingin dicapai oleh Universitas Pamulang. Tujuan dari Yayasan Sasmita Jaya adalah mewujudkan suatu sarana pendidikan yang murah dan terjangkau oleh seluruh lapisan masyarakat tanpa melupakan kualitas dari pendidikan itu sendiri. Oleh karena itu Universitas Pamulang selalu mengangkat tenaga-pengajar dan staff administrasi yang berkompeten di bidangnya. Kami pun juga selalu melakukan pengembangan di bidang kurikulum yang disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan dunia kerja, sehingga seluruh lulusan Universitas Pamulang dapat diterima dengan baik dalam dunia kerja. Selain itu untuk menunjang kegiatan perkuliahan, Universitas Pamulang telah menyediakan berbagai macam fasilitas seperti laboratorium dan perpustakaan
Dengan terselenggaranya pendidikan murah di Universitas Pamulang, kami selaku pihak Yayasan Sasmita jaya berharap semua lapisan masyarakat di Indonesia dapat menikmati pendidikan di bangku kuliah. Dengan terdidiknya seluruh lapisan masyarakat Indonesia
maka secara otomatis pun itu akan menurunkan tingkat kebodohan dan kemiskinan serta meningkatkan daya jual dan harga diri masyarakat Indonesia.

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Homonymy & Polysemy

A lexeme is a conjunction of form and meaning (Kreidler: 1998). A lexeme is a basic lexical unit of a language consisting of one or several words, the elements of which do not separately convey the meaning of the whole (Oxford: 94).

Homonym is each of two or more words having the same spelling or pronunciation but different meanings and origins (Oxford: 94). Homograph is two words that have different pronunciations but have the same spelling (Kreidler: 1998).

e.g.:

Bow → rhyming with go,

refer to an instrument for shooting arrows.

Bow → rhyming with cow,

indicating a bending of the body as a form of respectful greeting.


Lexicographers and semanticists sometime have to decide whether a form with wide range of meanings is an instance of polysemy or of homonymy. A polysemous lexeme has several (apparently) related meanings. The noun head, for instance, seems to have related meanings when we speak of the head of a person, the head of a company, head of a table of bed, a head of lettuce or cabbage. If we take the anatomical referent as the basic one, the other meanings can be seen as derived from the basic one, either reflecting the general shape of the human head or, more abstractly, the relation of the head to the rest of the body.

ex:

progress...


Polysemy is the coexistence of many possible meanings for a word or phrase (Oxford: 94).

Dictionaries recognize the distinction between polysemy and homonymy by making a polysemous item a single dictionary entry and making homophonous lexemes two or more separate entries. Thus head is one entry and bank is entered twice. Producers of dictionaries often make a decision in this regard on the basis of etymology, which is not necessarily relevant, and in fact separate entries are necessary in some instances when two lexemes have a common origin. The form pupil, for example, has two different senses, ‘part of the eye’ and ‘school child.’ Historically these have a common origin but at present they are semantically unrelated. Similarly, flower and flour were originally ‘the same word,’ and so were the verbs to poach (a way of cooking in water) and to poach (‘to hunt [animals] on another person’s land’), but the meanings are now far apart and all dictionaries treat them as homonyms, with separate listing. The distinction between homonymy and Polysemy is not an easy one to make. Two lexemes are either identical in form or not, but relatedness of meaning is not a matter of yes or no; it is a matter of more or less.

Example:

A. Fred asked Betty where his golf clubs were.

→ Fred: “Where are my golf clubs, Betty?” (a request for information)

B. Fred asked Donna if she had seen his clubs.

→ Fred: “Have you seen my clubs, Donna?” (a request for information)

C. Fred asked Charles to help him find his clubs.

→ Fred: “Help me to find my clubs, Charles.” (a request for a kind of action)


Sentences A and B are about questions, requests for information. The utterances behind sentences A and B would be something like “Where are my golf clubs, Betty?” and “Have you seen my clubs, Donna?” respectively. Sentence C is not a request for information but a request for a kind of action. The utterance behind sentence C might be something like “Help me to find my clubs, Charles.”, a request for action is prospective: the asking naturally precedes whatever action the other person takes. A request for information has no such relation to the information sought; it is about what the addressee may know at the time of asking. Now, do we have two homonymous verbs ask, or is there just one verb which happens to have two meanings? (We’ll leave aside the possibility of more than two meanings.) Before deciding, it may be useful to look at the correspondences in two languages related to English, three Germanic and three Romance.


English

Indonesian

Ask

for information

Bertanya

untuk informasi

Ask

for action

Meminta

untuk tindakan

If this display shows anything, we can conclude that English ask is a polysemous verb that corresponds to two different verbs in some other languages. The context in which ask occurs determines whether information or a favor is being requested. Therefore, there is no lexical ambiguity.


Bank =

- the land alongside or sloping down to a river or lake.

- a long, high mound or elevation.

- a transverse slope given to a road, railway, or sports track to enable vehicles or runners to maintain speed round a curve.

- the sideways tilt of an aircraft when turning in flight.

- a set of similar things grouped together in rows.

- the cushion of a pool table.

· v.

- heap or form into a mass or mound.

- (of an aircraft or vehicle) tilt sideways in making a turn.

- build (a road, railway, or sports track) with a bank on a bend.

- Brit. (of a locomotive) provide additional power for (a train) in ascending an incline.

- (of an angler) land (a fish).


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CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURE

Definition:
Conversational Implicature is the basic assumption in conversation in which the participants are adhering to the cooperative principal and the maxims.

Ex:
Wife : “I hope you brought the bread and the cheese”
Husband : “Ah, I brought the bread”

In this case, the husband did not mention the cheese. Then, he must intend that the wife infers what is not mentioned was not brought. The husband has conveyed more than he has said via a conversational implicature. Using the symbol +> for an implicature, we can represent the additional conveyed meaning.

Wife : b + c
Husband : b ( +> not c )

A. Generalized Conversational Implicature

Through the above example, it is possible to perceive that there is no special background knowledge required in the context to calculate the additional conveyed meaning. Thus, it is called a generalized conversational implicature.

One common example in English involves any phrase with an indefinite article of the type ‘a/an X’ such as ‘ a house’ and ‘a tortoise’ as in the following example.

These phrases are typically interpreted according to generalized conversational implicature that: an X +> not speaker’s.


Ex:
John walked into a house and saw a tortoise.
This expression implies that the house is not John’s house.


B. Scalar Implicatures

Occur when certain information is communicated by choosing a word which expresses one value from a scale of values.

from the highest to lowest in term for expressing quantity

( all, most, many, some, few)

( always, often, sometimes)

The basic of scalar implicature is that when any form in a scale is asserted, the negative of all forms higher on the scale is implicature.

+ by using (some of required courses), the speaker created an implicature (+> not all) and this is only one of the scale.

+ (all, most, many, some, few)

+ in fact, the speaker creates the implicatures (+> not all, +> not most, +> not many)

One noticeable feature of scalar implicature is that when speakers correct themselves on some detail, they typically cancel one of the scalar implicatures

"I got some of this jewelry in Hongkong- umm… actually I think I got most of it there."

The speaker initially implicates ‘ +> not most’ by saying “some”, but then corrects by asserting ‘most’. That final assertion is still likely to be interpreted, however, with a scalar implicature (+> not all)


C. Particularized Conversational Implicatures

Mostly, our conversations occur in very specific contexts in which locally recognized inferences are assumed. Such inferences are required to work out the conveyed meanings which results from particularize conversational implicatures.

Ex:
Rick: hey, coming to the wild party tonight?
Tom: my parents are visiting.

=> consequently +> Tom not at party.



D. Particularized Conversational Implicatures

Because they are by far of the most common, particularized conversational implicatures are typically just called implicatures.

Ann : Where are you going with the dog?
Sam : To the V-E-T.

Because the answer was no obvious, the question did not need to be asked.

Bert : Do vegetarians eat hamburgers?
Ernie : Do chickens have lips?


E. Properties of Conversational Implicatures

Conversational implicatures are deniable. They can be explicitly denied ( or alternatively, reinforced) in different ways.

E.g.:
You have won five dollars!
+> only five

Conversational implicatures can be calculated, suspended cancelled, and reinforced. None of the properties apply to conventional implicatures.


F. Conventional Implicature

are associated with specific words and result in additional conveyed meanings when those words are used. English conjunction ‘but’

e.g.:
Mary suggested black, but I chose white
= p = q
+> p is in contrast to q

‘even’ – appeared in any sentence describing an event, there is an implicature of “contrary to expectation”

e.g.:
Even John came to the party
He even helped tidy up afterwards.

‘yet’ – the present situation is expected to be different, or perhaps the opposite, at a later time.

e.g.:
Dennis is here = p
Dennis isn’t here yet. ( not p)
not p is true
( p expected to be true later)

‘and’: when two statements containing stactic information are joined by ‘and’ à means “in addition” or “plus”

When the two statements contain dynamic, action-related information, the implicature of ‘and’ is ‘and then” indicating sequence.


a. Yesterday, Mary was happy and ready to work.
(p & q, +> p plus q)

b. She put on her clothes and left the house
(p & q, +> q after p)



Special Thanks to:

Mr. Jaja Muktahiri, I've learned a lot from this, I am about to share. Please be mind, thanks..

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Kursus Bahasa Inggris (Guru datang ke Rumah)

untuk tingkat Preschool, TK, SD, SMP, SMA/SMK & Umum (Parung & Depok)
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     Blog ini dibuat hanya sebagai kajian riwayat hidupku dalam belajar dan sebagai jejaring sosial. Sebagian material yang saya tuangkan dalam blog ini bukanlah semata-mata ingin melanggar hukum ataupun membuka jalan “plagiarism”, tapi hanya ingin berbagi dan pemecahan dalam kajian diskusi tentang Sastra, khususnya Sastra Inggris di Unpam..
     Mohon bantuan, kritik atau saran guna meningkatkan (saya sebagai penulis) dan umumnya semua teman yang memang memerlukan bantuan dalam belajar…
Mohon maaf bila ada salah dalam penempatan kata, Terima kasih…

     This blog is implicated with Liguistics' material (Semantics & Pragmatics)

1. Deixis
2. Converastional Implicature
3. Presupposition Types
4. Hyponymy & Meronymy
5. Synonymy & Antonymy
6. Maxims
7. Speech Act
8. Homonymy & Polysemy


Download: English Course Syllabus for Scientists at the Research and Development Centre for Oil and Gas Technology “Lemigas” by Djasminar Anwar Tasman




Special Thanks to:
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And all lecturer in “Universitas Pamulang (unpam)


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